What Fish Should I Eat? by Don Orth

Fisheries and aquaculture provide protein for a quarter of the world’s population and livehoods for 59.6 million workers. Fish provide a high-quality, easily digested animal protein with essential amino acids, fats, and micronutrients. Greater consumption of fish is associated with a lower risk of dementia, cognitive decline, and cardiovascular disease (Bakre et al. 2018; Marshall and van der Meij 2018).  Eat more fish - it's good for you!  Yet, the diversity of fish and types of fishing makes the selection of what fish to eat more complicated. 

Tuna is a popular food fish worldwide.  Photo by Ashbridge Studios, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.  Source

One of many challenges to reducing hunger and malnutrition is to eliminate overfishing and delivering seafood in sustainable manner that does not further contribute to climate change.  Globally, 67% of assessed fish stocks are within biologically sustainable levels, which means they are at or above the level associated with maximum sustainable yield (FAO 2018); however, more fish stocks are being overfished.

Global trends in the state of the world’s marine fish stocks, 1974-2015.   Source:  FAO 2018.  CC-BY-NC-SA        

Fish and fish products provide an average of only ~34 calories per capita per day but the daily contribution varies widely by region based on availability of alternative protein sources and cultural preferences for fish.  Annual per capita consumption has more than tripled since 1961 in developing regions where four fish dominate our menu — salmon, sea bass, cod, and tuna (Greenberg 2011).   Many low-income regions of Latin America and Africa, where political instability and civil unrest have stymied economic development, still have very high food deficits.

Contribution of fish to animal protein supply (2013-2015).   Source:  FAO 2018.  CC-BY-NC-SA    

More people are consuming fish than ever before. The admonition to “think global and act local” should translate to eating locally harvested seafood and minimizing costs and unsustainable fishing practices. The Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries (FAO 1995) is a guiding framework for implementing sustainable fisheries and aquaculture operations. It sets out international principles and standards of behavior to ensure effective conservation, management, and development of both marine and freshwater living aquatic resources. It also accounts for the impact of fishing on ecosystems, the impact of ecosystems on fisheries, and the need to conserve biodiversity.    

Sustainability is a plastic word (Nikiforuk 2019). A fishery is not simply sustainable or not sustainable.  It’s more complicated and requires many choices.  Most practitioners accept three dimensions of sustainability: social, economic and ecological, but a deeper analysis requires consideration of six dimensions of sustainable development, specifically economic, social, ecological, institutional, ethical, and technological factors (Lam and Pitcher 2012; Aquado et al. 2016). For example, justice relates to equity or the fair distribution of benefits and harm, in terms of ecosystems and social justice. Many issues play into assessing sustainability.  Globally, we should be concerned with issues of seafood safety, bycatch, fish fraud, pollution from fish farms, post-harvest loss and waste, local governance, microplastics, lost and discarded fishing gear, overharvest of forage fish harvesting for fish meal, and many other social and ethical issues. As the trade flow diagrams show us, the source of our seafood is also complicated and most regions are importing much of their seafood. Your choice of fish to eat may depend on where and how it was harvested. 

Trade flows of fish and fish product by continent, share of total imports in value 2016 (%).  Source:  FAO 2018.  CC-BY-NC-SA        

Seafood certification, or ecolabeling, provided by third-parties, such as the Marine Stewardship Council and Seafood Watch, are the beginnings of evaluation of ethical and sustainble fisheries. Fishing practices changed dramatically in response to public outrage over harvest of dolphins in tuna purse-seining.  Fisheries that meet Marine Stewardship Criteria are highly selective for the target species, have limited access, well regulated, enforced, and often involve co-management between government, scientists, and fishers.  Seafood Watch develops fisheries and aquaculture standards to judge and communicate fish to “avoid” and “good” or “best” choices.  A novel aspect of this program rates whether fisheries support human trafficking, forced labor or child labor, as well as a new tool that collects data on carbon emissions (Monterey Bay Aquarium 2018).  These third-party certifications of sustainability have not yet delivered on the promise of price premiums, improved governance, or improved environmental conditions (Roheim et al. 2018). Challenges remain in the implementation of seafood sustainability due to potential for confusion about the overlapping goals of a growing range of sustainability initiatives (McClenachan et al. 2016).  

Three types of seafood sustainability initiatives and example goals of each (McClenachan et al. 2016).

One of the remaining issues of ecosystem justice remains to be solved.  With the expansion of aquaculture, the demand for fish meal has increased.   Small fishes, menhaden, anchovies, sardines, capelin, herring, and others are harvested and sent to reduction facilities that market and sell food to fish and other farms.   These fish, often labeled as forage fish, when overfished, no longer support seabirds and larger striped bass or bluefin tuna at higher trophic levels. 

What fish should I eat?  You can eat the fish you catch locally after you learn about local fish consumption advisories.  Take time to learn more about the fish you purchase to eat and how they were harvested.  Alaska Pollock Theragra chalcogramma had the highest catch of any fish in the world, followed by anchoveta, and Skipjack Tuna Katsuwonus pelamis.   Pollock is a “best choice” option according to Seafood Watch, but the Marine Stewardship Council has certified only the US fisheries for Alaska Pollock. McDonald's Filet-O-Fish contains Alaska Pollock in North America.   Skipjack Tuna is a “best choice” if harvested by trolling or pole-and-line fisheries, whereas the long line and purse seine fisheries is a “good choice” due to concerns of bycatch of dolphins. Tuna fisheries that use purse seines with FAD (fish attraction devices) should be avoided.   How do you know?   Look for the Marine Stewardship Council logo on any fish you purchase. 

I also started to compare the carbon foot prints of wild versus farmed seafood. The Seafood Carbon Emissions Tool was created by scientists at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch program and Dalhousie University. This tool also allows you to calculate the emissions associated with transporting the product to its final destination.   Most highly valued species such as shrimp, prawns, salmon, tunas, groundfish (e.g., cod, hakes, and haddocks), flatfish, seabass, and seabream are traded to the most prosperous markets, while less valued species are exported to developing countries. The US imports 98% of its Atlantic Salmon.  My favorite wild Alaskan Sockeye Salmon turns out to have a very high carbon cost associated with transport  

Since aquaculture provides over 50% of global seafood and the US imports the majority of its edible seafood, expect the supply of farmed seafood to continue to increase.  Hopefully, more of these products will be marketed with third party certification to assure responsible practices. Look for the logo for Best Aquaculture Practices Certification.  Watch for locally grown seafood from farms that use recirculating aquaculture technology and integrate aquaponics with fish production.  A land-based aquaponics farm, Superior Fresh, is expanding operations in Wisconsin on a 720-acre property producing fish and leafy green vegetables.  Superior Fresh is the first land-based Atlantic Salmon producer and the world’s largest aquaponics facility.  The goal is to producing seafood with a smaller environmental footprint than other options.  At a recent Wisconsin Aquaculture conference,  Greg Fischer, Manager of the Northern Aquaculture Demonstration Facility, predicted that Walleye “will be the next big food fish for aquaculture in the Midwest.”  This locally produced fish would reduce demand on wild stocks. 

References

Aguado, S.H., I.S. Segado, and T.J. Pitcher.  2016. Towards sustainable fisheries: A multi-criteria participatory approach to assessing indicators of sustainable fishing communities: A case study from Cartagena (Spain). Marine Policy 65:97-106.

Bakre, A.T. and thirteen coauthors. 2018.  Association between fish consumption and risk of dementia: a new study from China and a systematic literature review and meta-analysis.  Public Health Nutrition 21(10):1921-1932.

FAO. 1995. Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries. Rome.  Accessed 17 June, 2019 from http://www.fao.org/3/v9878e/v9878e00.htm

FAO. 2018. The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2018 - Meeting the sustainable development goals. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.  227 pp.  Accessed 17 June, 2019 from http://www.fao.org/documents/card/en/c/I9540EN

Greenberg, P. 2011.  Four Fish: The Future of the Last Wild Food.    Penguin Books, 285 pp. 

Lam, M.E., and T.J. Pitcher. 2012.  The ethical dimensions of fisheries.  Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 4:364-373.

Marshall, S., and B. van der Meij. 2018.  Fish and omega-3 intake and health in older people.   Maturitas 115:117-118. 

McClenachan, L., S.T.M. Dissanayake, and X. Chen. 2016. Fair trade fish: consumer support for broader seafood sustainability.  Fish and Fisheries 17:825-838.

Monterey Bay Aquarium. 2018.  Monterey Bay Aquarium Seafood Watch Launches First-of-its-Kind Seafood Slavery Risk Tool.    Accessed 17 June 2019 from https://newsroom.montereybayaquarium.org/press/seafood-watch-launches-seafood-slavery-risk-tool

Nikiforuk, A. 2019.  Against ‘sustainability’ and other plastic words.  The Tyee  2 May. Accessed on 18 June at https://thetyee.ca/Opinion/2019/05/02/Sustainability-Plastic/

Roheim, C.A., S.R. Bush, F. Asche, J.N. Sanchirico, and H. Uchida. 2018. Evolution and the future of sustainable seafood market.  Nature Sustainability 1:392-398.

Ten fish to try when you get bored with fish and chips, by Don Orth

What is the most consumed fish in the world?  If you guessed “Tuna,” then you are correct.  I think, probably.   But beyond Tuna, the most popular fish eaten depends on where you live.   Salmon, rohu, tilapia, cod, catfish, and trout are very popular, just not worldwide favorites. If you're from the Mid-Atlantic US you have likely tried Northern Snakehead, in Florida you have eaten the lionfish, Midwestern folks are learning to like or adapt to Asian Carp, and throughout North America we've been introduced to Basa, or Swai. Even if you have eaten sashimi, fish head soup, pickled herring, or caviar, it may be time for you to be more adventurous in your fish choices.  Here are ten top choices for your new fish bucket list.

10.  Lutefisk (LEWD-uh-fisk) is dried cod that has been soaked in a lye solution for several days.  This traditional dish is from Norway, Sweden, and parts of Finland.  But those in the old country do not eat it anymore. Rather it’s become a holiday treat for Scandinavian-Americans. In Scandinavia, cod were dried to preserve them for later consumption. The lutefisk origin story says that a drying rack filled with dried cod caught fire, leaving wood ashes (or lye) that changed the cod forever.  Lye is a caustic alkali that may raise the pH of the fish to 10!  Do not eat this.  To make the lutefisk edible, you must first soak the lutefisk in water to remove the lye. The soaked lutefisk is then gently poached or baked because of the jelly-like consistency.  It is an acquired taste, says the Norwegian bachelor farmer.  Others describe it as a foul and odiferous gooey fish with rancid oily taste.  Best served with lots of butter.  Uff da!

Lutefisk  Source

9. Surströmming.   If lutefisk is not an appealing fish for your bucket list, try Surströmming, which is soured herring, or its cousin Rakfisk a fermented trout. Herring, trout, and salmon are fatty fishes and drying is not an acceptable preservation method.  Fermentation, however, will preserve the fish indefinitely.

Surströmming  Source

Surströmming is only produced in northern Sweden where herring are harvested in spring, and gutted and salted.  They are then packed in barrels with a strong (17%) brine solution and allowed to ferment.  The pyloric caecum is left intact in the gutted fish. This provides proteolytic enzymes that facilitate a month-long fermentation.  The low temperatures (68̊ F) and brine are critical elements to the fermentation, which produces strong smelling acids.   It’s the smell of the surströmming that appeals to its proponents.  I mean, what else could there be to make this appealing?  Are you man enough to try it?  Closest I have gotten is watching others open a can; watch this video1 or this video2.  [Vomit Alert on video2!]

8.   Kusaya is similar to surstromming, but is a Japanese delicacy made by taking a fish like mackerel, soaking it in brine solution for a day, then laying it out in the sun for a few more days. Some kusaya makers pride themselves on having used the same brine over several generations to make their stinky fermented fish. Although the smell can be overpowering, the taste is actually quite mild.   Can't wait to try it. 

Kusaya is fermented mackerel.  Source

7.  Kæstur hákarl and Hongehoe are other versions of fermented fish.  The national disk of Iceland is the Kæstur hákarl, which is a fermented Greenland Shark.  The Greenland Shark has high content of urea and trimethylamine oxide, a mixture that facilitates osmoregulation.   However, after fermentation, the urea becomes ammonia and the hakarl has a fishy taste and an ammonia-rich smell. Andrew Zimmern, host of Bizzare Foods, described the smell as "some of the most horrific things I've ever breathed in my life."   In Korea, a skate is fermented to create a treat called Hongeohoe.  I’m told it’s edible as long as you don’t breathe. 

Hongeohoe is fermented skate.  Source

 6.  Shiokara is made from salted, fermented fish guts in a paste of malted rice. There are different varieties as you can imagine.  It can be made from whatever fish, squid, or other viscera were left over from the fishmongers shop.  This bucket list item must await travel to a specialized shiokara bar in Japan.  Tastes best when alternated with gulps of whiskey or sake.

Shiokara is salted, fermented fish guts in malted rice paste.  Source

5.  Salt cod is dried and salted so it will keep without refrigeration. When you take salt cod out of the box, you find it is hard and dry and covered in salt, not at all appealing. To make it edible again the salt cod is soaked in cold water—changing the water several times—for a couple of days until fully desalted and rehydrated.  Salt cod has a history in many countries. In Italy it's called baccalà, bacalao in Spain, morue in France, bacalhau in Portuguese, bakaliaro in Greece, saltfish in the Caribbean, and klippfisk in Scandinavian countries. The soaking process does work and the rehydrated cod can be used in any recipe calling for cod.  I recently made the Brandade de Morue recipe and can mark this one off my bucket list.  

4.  Gefilte fish are ground fish patties that were at one time stuffed back into the fish skin and baked. Gefilte fish is a Jewish tradition that later morphed into fish-shaped fish patties and even fish balls.  The gefilte fish, which is often carp, pike or whitefish, is poached in fish broth.  You can use the whole head of a large carp to make the jellied broth, or buy a prepared fish broth.  There are lots of options if you aren't planning to make it like your grandmother did. Gefilte fish is also available as a ready-to-eat product from Manischewitz. The Gefilte fish has morphed into many versions of fish meatballs.  Take ground fish (of any type), mixed with egg, breadcrumbs and herbs. Poach it very gently in salty water.

 3.  Shirako are cod sperm eaten in Japan. Romanians also eat carp milt, or Lapți, and the Russians eat herring milt, or Moloka.   Cooked or raw, fish sperm is also an acquired taste, so you may never know if you like it unless you try it.  

Shirako are cod sperm.  

 2.   Dried anchovy.   Ever eaten anchovies?   Anchovies are a healthy, sustainable food choice, that can be used in many recipes.   Cooking methods depend on their size.  Big ones are only a few inches long and are called "Dasi-myulchi" in Korean.  These are usually used for broth, while the small ones, called "Bokkeum-myulchi" are stir-fried for unique dishes. Dried anchovy can be also served without cooking as a snack. Try this spicy anchovies recipe for a snack, or Myeolchi-muchim  for a meal with rice and kimchi.     

Dried Anchovy.  Source

 And Number 1 on my bucket list? Fuguko Nuka-zuke is one rare delicacy that I haven't tried.  Fuguko Nuka-zuke are the pickled ovaries from the pufferfish.  Eating eggs of fish is much more commonplace than eating fish sperm, whether it's caviar or shad roe.  Nukazuke is a type of Japanese pickle, made by fermenting vegetables in rice bran (nuka) and fugu is Japanese for pufferfish.  How did anyone ever think to eat pufferfish ovaries?  Ovaries and other organs are filled with the deadly neurotoxin, tetrodotoxin!  Somehow the pickling process breaks down the deadly toxin.  Otherwise, the organs of the pufferfish can contain levels of tetrodotoxin sufficient to produce paralysis of diaphragm.  Do not try this one at home.

Fuguko Nuka-zuke, pickled ovaries from the pufferfish.  source

 

There are many more possibilities for your own bucket list.  You may wish to comment on this post to point out tasty items that I omitted.  I left off Ikizukuri, the practice of preparing sashimi from live seafood such as fish, shrimp or lobster.  Not raw, but live! I will say no more; I really cannot recommend that anyone try this.

The origins of many in the top ten are related to the fact that fish flesh spoils quickly.  Consequently, different cultures dried, salted, fermented fish between harvests before ice and refrigeration were widely available.  We don’t have to use these techniques today.  But we do because people find these foods interesting or tasty or both.

There are many good reasons to add more fish to your diet.  Eating more fish has been linked to lowered risk of depression, heart disease, and brain health in high-risk individuals (Marckmann and Grønbaek 1999; Morris et al. 2003; Li and Zhang 2015).  Fish provide the opportunity for a highly diverse, healthy, and interesting diet.  If you don’t like my fish bucket list, then write your own. Or you can eat bugs! 

References

Li, F., X. Liu, and D. Zhang. 2015.  Fish consumption and risk of depression: a meta-analysis.  Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health doi:10.1136/jech-2015-206278

Marckmann, P. and M. Grønbaek. 1999.  Fish consumption and coronary heart disease mortality. A systematic review of prospective cohort studies.  European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53(8):585-590. DOI: 10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600832

Morris, M.C., D.A. Evans, J.L. Bienias, C.C. Tangney, D. A. Bennett, R.S. Wildon, N. Aggarwal, and J. Schneider. 2003.  Consumption of fish and n-3 fatty acids and risk of incident Alzheimer disease.  Archives Neurology 60:940-946.

Morris, M.C., J. Brockman, J.A. Schneider, Y. Wang, D.A. Bennett, C.C. Tangney, and O. van de Rest. 2016. Association of seafood consumption, brain mercury level, and APOE ε4 status with brain neuropathology in older adults.  Journal of the American Medical Association 315(5) doi:10.1001/jama.2015.19451