Whale Shark Tourism, by Madeline Wood

A current trend, ecotourism, is taking popular tourist destinations by storm. Local communities in are using their unique environments to their advantage. In particular, marine ecotourism is growing at a rapid pace over the last few decades and shows no sign of slowing down. This raises the question, is it truly sustainable? The idea behind ecotourism is transforming local economies from unsustainable consumptive uses of marine resources to sustainable non-consumptive practices (Ziegler et al. 2012). Tropical areas such as the Philippines, Australia, Mexico, and many others have started a growing niche market in the world of whale shark ecotourism (Dove 2012).  Whale shark tourism may protect the endangered whale shark (IUCN Red List; Pierce & Norman 2016) while providing economic incentives for their protection (Graham 2004).

Whale sharks congregate in large numbers to feed on plankton in the Caribbean and similar areas, attracting the interest of tourists (Gabbatiss 2016). The three key bathymetric characteristics (mean depth, slope and proximity to the 200 m isobaths) induce upwelling events, increase primary productivity and consequently attract numerous other filter feeding species (Copping et al. 2018). Tourists to these aggregations and invited to jump into the water to swim with the whale sharks. The water may be chummed, a controversial practice, in order to attract a large number of whale sharks to a particular space for the pleasure of the customers. Typically, tourists are taken out in small groups of people per boat, however, several tours can be done in one day and hundreds of boats could visit the same location in one day. A closer analysis of the booming whale shark ecotourism industry reveals management and sustainability challenges that may beginning to outweigh the socio-economic benefits.

  

Whale shark with snorkeler.   Photo Bill Gracey.   CC BY-NC-ND 2.0

Some areas such as Cebu in the Philippines, have a well-established whale shark ecotourism industry. Here, there are established regulations and an enforced “code of conduct” for tourists and businessmen. However, local fishermen have learned how to bend the rules to the advantage of their business.  Ecotourism guides have been known to hand-feed whale sharks or bait the water to attract large numbers of them. Fishermen are feeding the sharks portions of their krill catch and even beginning to set aside portions of their catch to use as bait on tourist trips the next day. Despite the strict regulations already enforced in the shark tourism industry, there are none preventing aggregation methods to encourage mass numbers of sharks to swarm in one area. A method of aggregation, hand-feeding bait, has led the sharks to becoming dependent on people for food and beginning to lose their fear in human interaction (Dove 2012). Despite how harmless this all may seem, these type of behaviors among wild animals is cause for concern and can become very dangerous for humans and animals alike. Increased curiosity in whale sharks can also lead to added stress, increased injuries to the animal, accidental harm to humans, and decreased natural behaviors. These animals then lose interest in their normal migratory patterns and begin to abandon those behaviors all together. If there is a constant food supply in one area that is easily obtainable, why would they bother to migrate? Indonesia follows similar practices of “baiting aggregation” to encourage increased interaction. While there is not much data to support intense negative impacts on whale sharks, an ecotourism site in Australia has some scientific proof indicating a decline in the number and mean size of whale sharks in the area of Ningaloo (Dove 2012). This decrease is mean size of the animal could be due to competition and behavior changes. With a large number of whale sharks abandoning their normal migratory patterns to stay in one area to compete for food then adaptions such as decreased size must occur in order for the animal to survive. If such evidence continues to arise, the whale shark, an already threatened species could be at danger for extinction. Increased tourism combined with boating accidents, entanglements through by-catch, and other human caused incidents could lead to the demise of this species of shark (Ziegler et al. 2012). Harming popular ecotourist attractions such as the whale shark could potentially have detrimental impacts on those communities that economically rely on the ecotourism sector.

Along with environmental concerns of whale shark ecotourism, there are also issues with the current management practices of organizations that run such tours. A primary issue as recognized through tourism surveys is false advertising (Ziegler et al. 2012). Numerous tour operators do not advertise using their own photos and over exaggerate the amount of marine life that will most likely be seen on such a tour. Another concern is the lack of educational information that can be available to consumers. While some companies play educational videos in the background throughout their tours, issues such as proper safety procedures and the importance of whale shark conservation and ecology are not properly portrayed to the tourists. It is believed that this could possibly be due to cultural and educational barriers between tour guides and tourists (Ziegler et al. 2012). Another issues with such a large and specialized form of ecotourism is overcrowding. Hundreds of boats will stop by just one location in a single day thus overexploiting one area of whale sharks. This not only has a negative impact on the whale sharks themselves, it also can ruin the whole tourism experience. Almost 80% of surveyed tourists felt that regulations needed to be put in place to limit the number of boats allowed in one area per day in order to improve the experience and reduce crowding (Ziegler et al. 2012).

Whale Shark with snorkeler near Isla Mujeres, Mexico. Photo by Don Orth.

An overlooked issue within the ecotourism industry is the unlimited growth of the industry that has occurred over the last several years. While certain countries have their own regulations for ecotourism, there are no universal regulations to set a limit on the number of companies allowed to be involved in the industry. This makes it relatively simple for almost any established fishermen in these areas to be involved in exploiting whale sharks and any other animal that is marketable to ecotourists. Similarly, jurisdiction becomes a controversial issue with animal stewardship is involved (Dove 2012). In Cancun in particular, popular ecotourist destinations are just outside the perimeters of National Parks. Therefore, there are no clear agencies responsible for the safety and stewardship of the animals in these waters. A combination of these two factors has caused a rapid exponential growth in the number of ecotourism operators as well as a dramatic increase in the amount of boats that are visiting the aggregation (Dove 2012). The lack of strictly enforced universal regulations allows for operators to rely on self-regulation which in most cases is not beneficial to the species exploited. This has been compared to a “Tragedy of the Commons.” With individual operators each working for their own interests and competing with other businesses, the common goal to preserve the whale shark ecosystem and populations ultimately results in the destruction of the species (Dove 2012). All of these issues combined show the desperate need for serious regulations for the ecotourism industry if whale shark ecotourism is going to continue to grow.  

It is believed that whale shark ecotourism has the potential to be a factor that can lead to the survival of some shark species. Traditionally, income made from sharks in the fishing industry comes from the exploitation of various shark species in the practices of finning. Currently, shark fisheries can earn about $630 million annually, however, their numbers have been declining for the last ten years (Geiling 2014). Shark ecotourism earns around $314 million each year and is expected to grow to over $780 million annually within the next two decades  (Geiling 2014). In some places such as the Maldives, whale shark ecotourism contributes almost $20 million to their economy (Geiling 2014). Moving away from the traditional fishing-based economy to a more tourism based one could positively impact tropical communities. A successful tourism-based economy is Isla Mujeres who uses their location near the second largest Great Barrier Reef for sustainable shark tourism promoting conservation and education (Geiling 2014). Curiosity in the public fuels an educational factor in the tourism industry. Increased proper education on sustainable and correct interaction practices could potentially benefit IUCN red-listed endangered species such as whale sharks in the future. In order to be successful in conservation movements, people need to be interested and to care. Properly educating the public and providing them with exciting opportunities to actually interact with the animal they are attempting to conserve could be very beneficial to the conservation side of the industry.

Some industries such as the one implemented in the Philippines have a well-established and regulated “code of conduct” that is upheld for ecotourists and businesses (Dove 2012). In Mexico, “natural aggregation” is advertised as the only form of whale shark interactions with tourists (Dove 2012). Here, tourists are brought to the feeding grounds of whale sharks that are gathering to feed on plankton in the local waters. While this natural alternative may seem like it does not provide tourists with the same increase in-depth experience with whale sharks as baiting aggregation, it in fact can offer much more at minimal cost to the animal. “In fact, Yucatan, Mexico has the largest aggregation of whale sharks compared to anywhere in the world with 300 or more whale sharks in the same place on some days” according to Dove. Countries such as Costa Rica have been able to find a balance between sustainability and benefit for the locals (Gabbatiss 2016). Another leader in the world of whale shark ecotourism is Australia. They require an on-water observer, vessel monitoring systems, strict licensing, and are constantly improving (Gabbatiss 2016).  At the Ningaloo  reef in western Australia, Sanzongnie et al. (2015) discovered no patterns consistent with disturbance and the rate of departure of whale sharks from the aggregation was negatively correlated to the number of operator trips.  Consequently, following on-water observers may be “best system is one that ensure low impact on the wildlife, and that requires well-trained guides who are incentivized to stick to the regulations.” This way the tourism industry, tourists, guides, and the whale sharks can all benefit from ecotourism. In some cases, funding can even be provided to conservation programs from some of the money made in this tourism industry.

 

In case of whale sharks, ecotourism sector has the potential to be beneficial to organisms, the environment and humans. While any of these ecotourism sectors can have positive impacts, many of them have yet been able to find that perfect balance between sustainability and overexploitation. Management interventions recommended by Ziegler et al. (2016) included: (1) improved interpretation and guide intervention, (2) achieving higher compliance with existing guidelines, and (3) limiting the number of boats allowed in the whale shark viewing area. Despite the booming popularity of the whale shark ecotourism industry, not much is known about the true impacts it has on the sharks themselves.  A better understanding of these activities effects on the shark’s behavior, reproduction, habitat, and quality of life is needed in order for this industry to continue on.   Ziegler et al. (2018) surveyed whale shark tourists and found that respondents justified their participation using mainly economic, human enjoyment, and animal welfare arguments.  These and other studies highlight gaps in our knowledge of economic, social, and ecological impacts.    While there may be no obvious negative impacts right now, further scientific research could prove that ecotourism is doing more harm than good to these ecosystems. 

 

Whale Sharks at Oslob, Phillipines.  Photo by Mark and Andrea Busse. CC BY-NC-ND 2.0.

References

Conservation International. 2016. Scientific Data to Support Whale Shark Marine Ecotourism. Conservation International. Accessed 29 April 2019.  https://www.conservation.org/NewsRoom/pressreleases/Pages/Scientific-Data-to-Support-Whale-Shark-Marine-Ecotourism.aspx . 

Copping JP, Stewart BD, McClean CJ, Hancock J, Rees R. 2018. Does bathymetry drive coastal whale shark (Rhincodon typus) aggregations? PeerJ 6:e4904 https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.4904

Dove, A. 2012. Whale shark ecotourism: the good, the bad and the ugly. Deep Sea News. Accessed 29 April, 2019 from  http://www.deepseanews.com/2012/08/whale-shark-ecotourism-the-good-the-bad-and-the-ugly/.  

Gabbatiss, J. 2016. Is Whale Shark Ecotourism Really Eco-Friendly?. Earth Island Journal. Accessed 29 April, 2019 http://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/is_whale_shark_tourism_eco-friendly/ .   

Geiling, N. 2014. Save the Sharks By Swimming With Them: Ecotourism is helping promote shark conservation around the world—while also boosting local economies. Smithosinian Magazine.   Accessed 29 April, 2019.     https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/save-sharks-swimming-them-180952302/ . 

Pierce, S.J. & Norman, B. 2016. Rhincodon typus. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2016: e.T19488A2365291. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2016-1.RLTS.T19488A2365291.en.  Accessed 07 May 2019.

Pierce, S.J., A. Méndez-Jiménez, K. Collins, M. Rosero-Caicedo. 2010. Developing a code of conduct for whale shark interactions in Mozambique.  Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 20: 782-788.

Sanzongni, R.L., M.G. Meekan, and J. J. Meeuwig. 2015. Multi-year impacts of ecotourism on Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) visitation at Ningaloo Reef, Western Australia. PLOS ONE  https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0127345

Warne, K. 2018. Inside the Chaotic World of Whale Shark Tourism. National Geographic.  Accessed 30 April 2019.  Available: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2018/08/whale-sharks-tourism-philippines-benefit-harm-news/  

Ziegler J., P. Dearden, R. Rollins. 2012. But are tourists satisfied? Importance-performance analysis of the whale shark tourism industry on Isla Holbox, Mexico. Tourism Management 33:692-701. 

Ziegler, J. A., P. Dearden, and R. Rollins. 2016. Participant crowding and physical contact rates of whale shark tours on Isla Holbox, Mexico.  Journal of Sustainable Tourism 24:616-636.

Ziegler, J.A., J.N. Silberg, G. Araujo, J. Labaja, A. Ponzo, R. Rollins, and P. Dearden. 2018. A guilty pleasure: Tourist perspectives on the ethics of feeding whale sharks in Oslob, Philippines. Tourism Management 68:264-274.